Современная психология это: Современная психология ,ее характеристика как науки

Современная психология — это весьма разветвленная наука, имеющая много — Студопедия

отраслей. Отрасли психологии представляют собой относительно самостоятель­но развивающиеся направления научных психологических исследований. Причем из-за бурного развития психологической науки каждые четыре-пять лет появля­ются новые направления.

Возникновение отраслей психологии обусловлено, во-первых, широким вне­дрением психологии во все сферы научной и практической деятельности, во-вто­рых, появлением новых психологических знаний. Одни отрасли психологии от­личаются от других прежде всего тем комплексом проблем и задач, которые реша­ет то пли иное научное направление. Вместе с тем все отрасли психологии условно можно разделить на фундаментальные (общие) и прикладные (специальные).

Глава 2. Психология в структуре современных наук • 63

Фундаментальные (их еще называют базовыми) отрасли психологической на­уки имеют общее значение для понимания и объяснения различных психических явлений, в том числе поведения людей независимо от того, какой деятельностью они занимаются. Фундаментальные знания необходимы всем, кто занимается про­блемами психологии и поведения людей. Фундаментальные знания — это тот ба­зис, который не только объединяет все отрасли психологической пауки, но и слу­жит основой для их развития. Поэтому фундаментальные знания, как правило, объединяют термином «общая психология».

Прикладными называются отрасли науки, достижения которых используются на практике. В большинстве случаев прикладные отрасли психологической науки решают конкретные задачи в рамках своего направления. Однако в некоторых случаях достижения или научные открытия прикладных отраслей могут носить фундаментальный характер, что определяет необходимость использования вновь полученного знания во всех отраслях и направлениях.

Следует также подчеркнуть, что в большинстве случаев прикладные отрасли психологии не являются изолированными друг от друга. Чаще всего в конкретной отрасли психологии используются знания или методология других ее отраслей. Например, космическая психология — отрасль психологической науки, занимаю­щаяся проблемами психологического обеспечения деятельности человека в кос­мосе, — включает в себя инженерную психологию, медицинскую психологию, пе­дагогическую психологию и др. Следовательно, прикладные области психологии по степени их обобщения могут быть условно разделены на синтетические (объеди­няющие в себе знания других областей) и первичные (являющиеся относительно узким и конкретным направлением прикладной отрасли). Например, медицин­ская психология включает в себя общую медицинскую психологию, клиническую психологию, патопсихологию, психогигиену и психопрофилактику, психокоррек­цию и др. Аналогично в инженерной психологии можно выделить следующие раз­делы: эргономика, психология труда, менеджмент и др.

Рассмотрим более подробно некоторые отрасли психологической науки.

Общая психология — отрасль психологической науки, объединяющая фунда­ментальные психологические знания и решающая задачи но исследованию инди­вида — конкретного представителя вида Homo sapiens.Она включает в себя теоре­тические и экспериментальные исследования, выявляющие наиболее общие пси­хологические закономерности, теоретические принципы и методы психологии, ее основные понятия и категориальный строй. Основными понятиями общей психо­логии являются психические процессы (познавательные, волевые, эмоциональ­ные), психические свойства (темперамент, характер, способности, направлен­ность) и психические состояния (рис 2.2).

Разделение понятий общей психологии на группы условно. Понятие «психи­ческий процесс» подчеркивает процессуальный характер изучаемого психическо­го явления. Понятие «психическое состояние» характеризует статический момент, относительное постоянство психического явления. Понятие «психическое свой­ство» отражает устойчивость исследуемого явления, его повторяемость и закрепленность в структуре личности.

Возникновение общей психологии как самостоятельной и фундаментальной отрасли психологической науки связано с именем С. Л. Рубинштейна, который

64 • Часть I. Введение в общую психологию

Рис. 2.2. Структура общей психологии

систематизировал психологические знания и предложил методологию исследова­ния психических явлений.

На базе основных понятий общей психологии формируются понятия других отраслей психологической науки. Одной из наиболее известных наук, имеющих большое практическое значение, является педагогическая психология — отрасль психологии, изучающая психологические проблемы обучения и воспитания. Пе­дагогическая психология исследует вопросы целенаправленного формирования познавательной деятельности и общественно значимых качеств личности, а также изучает условия, обеспечивающие оптимальный эффект обучения. Не менее зна­чимыми для педагогической психологии являются вопросы учета индивидуаль­ных особенностей обучаемого при построении учебного процесса и взаимоотноше­ний ученика и учителя, а также взаимоотношений внутри учебного коллектива. Как самостоятельная отрасль психологической науки педагогическая психология зародилась во второй половине XIX в., что было обусловлено проникновением в психологию идей развития. Эволюция педагогической психологии в значитель­ной мере определялась господствующими в психологии концепциями. Так, в конце XIX в. большую роль в развитии педагогической психологии сыграла интроспек­тивная психология. Позднее ее развитие определялось бихевиористским направ­лением, которое предлагало в воспитании ориентироваться на жесткую «модифи­кацию поведения». В основе современной отечественной педагогической психо­логии лежит фундаментальное положение о том, что сущностью индивидуального психического развития человека является усвоение им общественно-историче-

Глава 2. Психология в структуре современных наук • 65

ского опыта, зафиксированного в предметах материальной и духовной культуры. В то же время это усвоение осуществляется посредством активной деятельности человека, а средства и способы этой деятельности актуализируются в общении с другими людьми. По сферам применения педагогическую психологию можно разделить на психологию дошкольного воспитания, психологию обучения и вос­питания в школьном возрасте с разделением на младший, средний и старший школьный возраст, психологию профессионального обучения, психологию выс­шей школы.

Очень близка к педагогической психологии следующая отрасль психологиче­ской науки — возрастная психология, изучающая закономерности этапов психи­ческого развития и формирования личности от рождения до старости. Так же как и педагогическая психология, возрастная психология оформилась в качестве са­мостоятельной отрасли психологической науки в конце XIX в. Возникнув как дет­ская психология, возрастная психология в процессе своего развития стала решать задачи целостного анализа онтогенетических процессов. В настоящее время ос­новными разделами возрастной психологии являются: психология детства, пси­хология юности, психология зрелого возраста, геронтопсихология. Возрастная психология изучает возрастную динамику психических процессов, что невозмож­но без учета влияния на индивидуальное развитие человека культурно-истори­ческих, этнических и социально-экономических условий. Кроме того, для возраст­ной психологии имеют большое значение дифференциально-психологические раз­личия, к которым относятся половозрастные и типологические свойства, поэтому очень часто исследования в возрастной психологии осуществляются с использо­ванием приемов дифференциальной психологии.

Дифференциальная психология — отрасль психологической науки, изучающая различия как между индивидами, так и между группами, а также причины и по­следствия этих различий. Предпосылкой возникновения дифференциальной пси­хологии явилось внедрение в психологию эксперимента, генетических и матема­тических методов. Начало разработке данной отрасли психологии положил Ф. Гальтон, создавший ряд приемов и приборов для изучения индивидуальных различий и для статистического анализа данных. Термин «дифференциальная психология» был предложен в 1900 г. В. Штерном. Основными методами дифференциальной психологии стали тесты. Первоначально это были индивидуальные тесты, затем появились групповые, а позднее и проективные.

Поскольку и педагогическая, и возрастная, и дифференциальная психология оперируют понятием «группа», в тесной связи с ними находится социальная пси­хология, изучающая закономерности поведения И деятельности людей, обуслов­ленные фактом их включения в группы, а также психологические характеристики самих групп. Длительное время социально-психологические взгляды разрабаты­вались в рамках философии, и лишь к концу XIX в. появились первые самостоя­тельные социально-психологические концепции, такие как «психология пародов» (М. Лацарус, X. Штейпгаль, В. Вундт), «психология масс» (С. Сигле, Г. Лебон), теория «инстинктов социального поведения» (У. Макдугалл).

Началом самостоятельного существования социальной психологии считается 1908 г., когда одновременно появились работы английского психолога У. Макдугалла и американского социолога Э. Росса. В названиях этих работ содержался

66 • Часть I. Введение в общую психологию

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90000 psychology: Modern Psychology | Infoplease 90001 90002 Modern psychology is divided into several subdisciplines, each based on differing models of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists work in a number of different settings, including universities and colleges, primary and secondary schools, government agencies, private industry, hospitals, clinics, and private practices. Recent years have seen a rise in the significance of applied psychology-as can be seen from the areas contemporary psychologists concern themselves with-with an attendant decline in the importance of psychology in academia.In the United States, clinical psychology has become a significant focus of the discipline, largely separate from psychological research. Clinical psychologists are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of various psychological problems. 90003 90002 Biological models of behavior have become increasingly prominent in psychological theory, particularly with the development of various tools-such as the positron emission tomography (PET) scan-for mapping the brain. The field of neuropsychology, which studies the brain and the connected nervous system, has been an outgrowth of this contemporary focus on biological explanations of human thought and behavior.Cognitive models, derived from the Gestalt school of psychology, focus on the various thinking processes which mediate between stimuli and responses. 90003 90002 Educational psychology, derived from the 18th and 19th cent. educational reforms of Friedrich W. Froebel, Johann Pestalozzi, and their follower Johann Herbart, was later expanded by G. Stanley Hall and by E. L. Thorndike. It is concerned with the development of improved methods of teaching and learning. 90003 90002 Social psychology, developed by British psychologists William McDougall and Havelock Ellis, studies the effects of various social environments on the individual.Some other branches of the field include developmental psychology, which studies the changes in thought and behavior through the course of life; experimental psychology, which is the laboratory research involved in the understanding of the mind; and personality psychology, which deals specifically with individual personality and the processes by which it is formed. 90003 90002 In recent years a number of new fields of psychology have emerged. Industrial / organizational psychology, emerging from social psychology, focuses on the workplace and considers such topics as job satisfaction, leadership, and productivity.Health psychology examines how psychological factors contribute to pathology, and demonstrates how psychology can contribute to recovery and illness prevention for such somatic disorders as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. In environmental psychology, research focuses on how individuals react to their physical environments, and suggests improvements which may be beneficial to psychological health. Other new areas of psychology include counseling psychology, school psychology, forensic psychology, and community psychology.90003 90002 90013 The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 90014 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. 90003 90002 90017 See more Encyclopedia articles on: 90018 Psychology and Psychiatry 90003.90000 Introduction to Psychology 90001 90002 The term Psychology has been derived from two Greek words Psyche which means life and logos which means explanation. Psychology as a social science scientifically studies the mind and behaviour, which influences our day to day lives, professional well being and our relationships with family members and society. 90003 90002 Psychology as a social science has evolved a lot over several years and has widespread applications in clinical field, forensic field, counseling and psycho-therapy sessions for people who are distressed, research and observation for understanding certain behaviour patterns and differences in personality, attitude or perception.As per 90005 Seyidov (2000), Psychology analysis is a pertinent area of ​​concern for the HR or Management professionals, as it addresses the four crucial problem areas: Employee Motivation, Interpersonal Relations, Leadership and Selection of the talent pool 90006. 90003 90002 Several years of research and investigations done by the psychologists (both researchers and practitioners) focus on one common aspect, that is relying on scientific techniques. Most of the researches on psychology involve a scientific assessment of human behaviour (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1967).Psychology is predominantly based on three important premises: 90003 90010 90011 Human beings have brains which is the most complicated thing in the whole universe. 90012 90011 They even have minds, which can not be seen in its physical form, but it does have an existence. 90012 90011 People are keen on observing and analyzing other people s behaviour and assessing their mindset. 90012 90017 90018 History and Approaches of Psychology 90019 90002 The field of Psychology has transformed from being more speculative in its approach, to being more objective and scientific by adopting technology to assess human behaviour (90005 Benjamin & Baker, 2004 90006).The father of Modern Psychology is Wilhelm Wundt, who introduced the first psychology lab in Germany in 1879. In the first psych experiment, Wundt measured the time it took people to hit a switch as soon as they heard and perceived a sound. The German psychologist was the main proponent of structuralism. The origin of Psychology finds its mention in the studies of scholars like Buddha, Confucius and Hebrew, who philosophized on the functioning of mind in a broader sense. Even the Greeks, like Plato and Socrates, philosophized that mind is different from the rest of the body and also that we all are born with knowledge which is innate.90003 90002 Much later in 1600s, Rene Descartes tried figuring out the relationship or connection between the mind and body, for which he performed a dissection on the animals to study their nerves as well as the brains. Francis Bacon conducted experiments using scientific techniques, for which he is also known as the father of modern science. According to John Locke, people s minds can be compared to a blank slate or tabula rasa. Which means, whatever we know is learnt, which gave birth to empiricism knowledge comes from experiences.90003 90002 Dramatic changes took place during 1800s due to the efforts of Wilhelm Wundt, German Psychologist (18321920) and William James, American Psychologist (18421910). Let s analyze the various approaches or schools of thought on Psychology. 90003 90002 90005 Structuralism: 90006 Wundt and his student Edward Bradford Titchener propounded the structuralism approach of Psychology, with focus on the structure of the mind or analysis of the basic elements of consciousness and their interrelationship using introspection.The subjectivity of this approach and the limitations associated with introspection, made structuralism approach a bit less popular. 90003 90002 90005 Functionalism (1842-1910): 90006 William James was the father of Functionalism approach which focused on understanding the functioning of the mental processes instead of analyzing the structure of consciousness. His main achievement was the psych lab that he established, though functionalism approach also had its own limitations. 90003 90002 90005 Biopsychosocial Approach: 90006 According to this approach, human behaviour is influenced by all the three key components-Psychological, Biological and Socio-cultural factors.From the biopsychosocial approach we derived the modern approaches to psychology: 90003 90018 Modern Approaches to Psychology 90019 90010 90011 90005 Biological Approach: 90006 The chief proponents of this approach were Olds, Sperry. As per Biological approach, the brain and the body are the key influencers of human behaviour. 90012 90011 90005 Evolutionary Approach: 90006 Charles Darwin propounded his Theory of Evolution in his book Origin of Species, 1859. According to him, organisms evolve or change over a period of time due to changes in the behavioural traits or heritable characteristics.90012 90011 90005 Psychodynamic Approach: 90006 Sigmund Freud focused on the power of our unconscious memories, feelings and thoughts in influencing people s behaviour. He conducted extensive analysis on his patients who were being treated for depression, anxiety or sexual malfunction, which were all an outcome of bad childhood experiences which perhaps they have forgotten. 90012 90011 90005 Behavioural Approach: 90006 Watson and Skinner reckoned that the behaviour is influenced by both negative and positive reinforcement in the form of reward or punishments.Behaviourists have substantial contributions towards analyzing the principles of learning and in understanding the connection between stimulus and response. 90012 90011 90005 Cognitive Approach: 90006 Chomsky, Piaget revealed in their studies that human brain stores, processes and interprets the information very much like a computer. 90012 90011 90005 Humanistic Approach: 90006 Propounded by Maslow and Rogers, stressed on the influence of environmental factors on our day to day behaviour.90012 90011 90005 Socio-Cultural Approach: 90006 Human behaviour and thoughts are different and differ because of the cultural differences. 90012 90017 90018 Branches of Psychology 90019 90002 Let s analyze the vast field of psychology by understanding the various branches of this field and their areas of concentration 90003 90076 90011 90005 Psychometrics: 90006 Studies attitudes, abilities and traits 90012 90011 90005 Biological Psychology: 90006 Studies the relationship between the mind, brain and nervous system.90012 90011 90005 Developmental Psychology: 90006 Attempts to study the changes which occur during birth till death. 90012 90011 90005 Educational Psychology: 90006 Study of psychological factors associated with teaching and various learning processes. 90012 90011 90005 Personality Psychology: 90006 Study of personality traits 90012 90011 90005 Social Psychology: 90006 Attempts to study our behaviour in a social set up or how we interact with each other 90012 90011 90005 Industrial or Organizational Psychology: 90006 Is about assessing the behaviour of workers and their thought processes, for evolving strategies which will enhance their efficiency at work and overall productivity too.90012 90011 90005 Counselling Psychology and Clinical Psychology: 90006 Counselling helps people to deal with the issues of their personal and professional life. Clinical psychology helps in treating disorders. 90012 90109 90110 90110 90110 90018 90005 90006 Authorship / Referencing — About the Author (s) 90019 90117 90118 90119 The article is Written By Prachi Juneja and Reviewed By 90005 Management Study Guide Content Team 90006.MSG Content Team comprises experienced Faculty Member, Professionals and Subject Matter Experts. We are a 90005 ISO 2001 діє до: 2015 Certified Education Provider 90006. To Know more, click on About Us. The use of this material is free for learning and education purpose. Please reference authorship of content used, including link (s) to ManagementStudyGuide.com and the content page url. 90124 90125 90110 90110 .90000 psychology | Definition, History, Fields, Methods, & Facts 90001 90002 90003 Psychology 90004, scientific discipline that studies mental states and processes and behaviour in humans and other animals. 90005 William James 90006 Courtesy of the Harvard University News Service 90007 90002 Britannica Quiz 90005 90002 Psychology 101 90005 90002 Who was the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology? 90005 90002 The discipline of psychology is broadly divisible into two parts: a large profession of practitioners and a smaller but growing science of mind, brain, and social behaviour. The two have distinctive goals, training, and practices, but some psychologists integrate the two. 90005 90016 Early history 90017 90002 In Western culture, contributors to the development of psychology came from many areas, beginning with philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle.Hippocrates philosophized about basic human temperaments (e.g., choleric, sanguine, melancholic) and their associated traits. Informed by the biology of his time, he speculated that physical qualities, such as yellow bile or too much blood, might underlie differences in temperament (90019 see also 90020 humour). Aristotle postulated the brain to be the seat of the rational human mind, and in the 17th century René Descartes argued that the mind gives people the capacities for thought and consciousness: the mind «decides» and the body carries out the decision-a dualistic mind -body split that modern psychological science is still working to overcome.Two figures who helped to found psychology as a formal discipline and science in the 19th century were Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and William James in the United States. James’s 90019 The Principles of Psychology 90020 (1890) defined psychology as the science of mental life and provided insightful discussions of topics and challenges that anticipated much of the field’s research agenda a century later. 90005 90002 During the first half of the 20th century, however, behaviourism dominated most of American academic psychology.In 1913 John B. Watson, one of the influential founders of behaviourism, urged reliance on only objectively measurable actions and conditions, effectively removing the study of consciousness from psychology. He argued that psychology as a science must deal exclusively with directly observable behaviour in lower animals as well as humans, emphasized the importance of rewarding only desired behaviours in child rearing, and drew on principles of learning through classical conditioning (based on studies with dogs by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov and thus known as Pavlovian conditioning).In the United States most university psychology departments became devoted to turning psychology away from philosophy and into a rigorous empirical science. 90005 90003 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov 90004 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. 90006 Mansell Collection 90007 Get exclusive access to content from our тисяча сімсот шістьдесят вісім First Edition with your subscription. Subscribe today 90016 Behaviourism 90017 90002 Beginning in the 1930s, behaviourism flourished in the United States, with B.F. Skinner leading the way in demonstrating the power of operant conditioning through reinforcement.Behaviourists in university settings conducted experiments on the conditions controlling learning and «shaping» behaviour through reinforcement, usually working with laboratory animals such as rats and pigeons. Skinner and his followers explicitly excluded mental life, viewing the human mind as an impenetrable «black box,» open only to conjecture and speculative fictions. Their work showed that social behaviour is readily influenced by manipulating specific contingencies and by changing the consequences or reinforcement (rewards) to which behaviour leads in different situations.Changes in those consequences can modify behaviour in predictable stimulus-response (S-R) patterns. Likewise, a wide range of emotions, both positive and negative, may be acquired through processes of conditioning and can be modified by applying the same principles. 90005 90016 Freud and his followers 90017 90002 Concurrently, in a curious juxtaposition, the psychoanalytic theories and therapeutic practices developed by the Vienna-trained physician Sigmund Freud and his many disciples-beginning early in the 20th century and enduring for many decades-were undermining the traditional view of human nature as essentially rational.Freudian theory made reason secondary: for Freud, the unconscious and its often socially unacceptable irrational motives and desires, particularly the sexual and aggressive, were the driving force underlying much of human behaviour and mental illness. Making the unconscious conscious became the therapeutic goal of clinicians working within this framework. 90005 Sigmund Freud. 90006 SuperStock 90007 90002 Freud proposed that much of what humans feel, think, and do is outside awareness, self-defensive in its motivations, and unconsciously determined.Much of it also reflects conflicts grounded in early childhood that play out in complex patterns of seemingly paradoxical behaviours and symptoms. His followers, the ego psychologists, emphasized the importance of the higher-order functions and cognitive processes (e.g., competence motivation, self-regulatory abilities) as well as the individual’s psychological defense mechanisms. They also shifted their focus to the roles of interpersonal relations and of secure attachment in mental health and adaptive functioning, and they pioneered the analysis of these processes in the clinical setting.90005 90016 After World War II and Sputnik 90017 90002 After World War II, American psychology, particularly clinical psychology, grew into a substantial field in its own right, partly in response to the needs of returning veterans. The growth of psychology as a science was stimulated further by the launching of Sputnik in 1957 and the opening of the Russian-American space race to the Moon. As part of this race, the U.S. government fueled the growth of science. For the first time, massive federal funding became available, both to support behavioral research and to enable graduate training.Psychology became both a thriving profession of practitioners and a scientific discipline that investigated all aspects of human social behaviour, child development, and individual differences, as well as the areas of animal psychology, sensation, perception, memory, and learning. 90005 90002 Training in clinical psychology was heavily influenced by Freudian psychology and its offshoots. But some clinical researchers, working with both normal and disturbed populations, began to develop and apply methods focusing on the learning conditions that influence and control social behaviour.This behaviour therapy movement analyzed problematic behaviours (e.g., aggressiveness, bizarre speech patterns, smoking, fear responses) in terms of the observable events and conditions that seemed to influence the person’s problematic behaviour. Behavioral approaches led to innovations for therapy by working to modify problematic behaviour not through insight, awareness, or the uncovering of unconscious motivations but by addressing the behaviour itself. Behaviourists attempted to modify the maladaptive behaviour directly, examining the conditions controlling the individual’s current problems, not their possible historical roots.They also intended to show that such efforts could be successful without the symptom substitution that Freudian theory predicted. Freudians believed that removing the troubling behaviour directly would be followed by new and worse problems. Behaviour therapists showed that this was not necessarily the case. 90005 90002 To begin exploring the role of genetics in personality and social development, psychologists compared the similarity in personality shown by people who share the same genes or the same environment.Twin studies compared monozygotic (identical) as opposed to dizygotic (fraternal) twins, raised either in the same or in different environments. Overall, these studies demonstrated the important role of heredity in a wide range of human characteristics and traits, such as those of the introvert and extravert, and indicated that the biological-genetic influence was far greater than early behaviourism had assumed. At the same time, it also became clear that how such dispositions are expressed in behaviour depends importantly on interactions with the environment in the course of development, beginning in utero.90005 .90000 A History of Modern Experimental Psychology 90001 90002 90003 In the end Mandler’s book stands as an outline of the past, not a history. Its value rests with perspective that comes from someone who has been thinking, researching, and writing about topics central to cognitive psychology for over 40 years. He has been a witness to change, someone who has even participated in them, so his insights are valuable and directive. 90004 90003 Canadian Psychology 90004 90007 90002 90003 Mandler’s history conveys a heightened historical sophistication…. As a participant in the beginnings of cognitive psychology, Mandler offers some unique perspectives …. His text is an informative source for both history and perspective. 90004 90003 The Journal of General Psychology 90004 90007 90002 90003 Mandler’s volume is a 90016 tour de force 90017 …. This is no dry recounting of facts and dates. It goes from the meaning and history of the concept of mind, through the psychology of thought and memory …. Any clinician who takes the time to absorb this volume’s offerings will be amply rewarded.90004 90003 The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 90004 90007 90002 90003 The book is best in the central chapters on the early Wurzburg school and on the systematic dismantling of what was still one of the world’s great communities of psychological researchers by the Nazis in the 1930’s …. An interesting read that brings controversial historical ideas forward for further discussion and debate. 90004 90003 Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 90004 90007 90002 90003 This is a splendid book by an author who has himself made an outstanding contribution to cognitive psychology…. The book is much more readable than most texts of its kind, moving smoothly between past and present so as to bring out underlying continuities …. In sum, the story of how a central strand of thinking about mind progressed from early speculations to the cutting edge of cognitive science is told in masterly fashion. 90004 90003 Metapsychology 90004 90007 .